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In order to the investigation on the effects of methyl jasmonate on the secondary metabolites of Calendula officinalis L., the plants were grown in a modified Hogland (1/2) solution and were treated with 50 and 100 µm methyl jasmonate. The results indicated that jasmonate treatment decreased lignin content of root but increased lignin content of shoots, in comparison with those of the control plants. However, total content of wall-bound phenolics of roots increased and those of shoots decreased by jasmonate treatment. Anthocyanin content of shoot, decreased by methyl jasmonate. Likewise, flavonoid contents of shoots in both treatments were lower than those of the control plants. Lipid peroxidation rate of roots and shoots did not show significant changes in jasmonate treatments, compared to the control plants. In both control and jasmonate treated plants, α- Cadinol was the most abundant essential oils component. Induction of α-Muureloene with specific antifungal properties in the jasmonate treated plants and increase of it along with increase of jasmonate concentration, suggested that jasmonate can be used in order to induce modifications in secondary metabolism pathway of Calendula officinalis, resulting to produce desired medicinal compounds.

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Certain compounds of plants such as essential oils, with insecticidal properties have been considered as alternatives to chemical pesticides for pest control. This study reports the fumigant toxicity of Citrus reticulata Blanco (Rutaceae) peel essential oils against stored-product insect pest, red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Tenebrionidae) adults. Experiment was carried out at 27 ± 1 ^°C and 60 ± 5 % relative humidity in darkness. Experimental concentrations were 15, 22, 31, 45, and 63 μl/l air tested on adult (1-7 days old) insects after 24 and 48 h of exposure. Results indicated that essential oils from C. reticulata had fumigant tocxicity effects against this stored pest. LC50 values were 38.2 and 35.6 μl/l air at 24 and 48 h after exposure of T. castaneum adults respectively. The essential oils of Citrus reticulata fruit peels at the highest dose of 63 μl/l air caused 76.6 % and 79 % mortality of insects after 24 and 48 hours of exposure, respectively. Mortality of T. castaneum increased with both increase in concentration of C. reticulata oils as well as exposure time of treated insects. These results suggest the potencial of C. reticulata oil as a control agent against T. castaneum.  

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Essential oil extracted from the leaves of Lemon verbena, Lippia citriodora Kunth (Verbenaceae) was tested for fumigant toxicity in the laboratory against two stored-product insects Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val and Callosobruchus maculatus (F.). The chemical composition of the isolated oil was examined by GC-MS. The major compounds were citral (11.3%), limonene (10.6%), neral (7.9%), 4-phenyl undecan-4-ol (7.7%), α-curcumene (6.5%), α-cedrol (4.5%) and caryophyllene oxide (4.5%). Furthermore, lesser amounts of the other components include carveol (3.7%), linalool (3.5%), α-pinene (3.2%), caryophyllene (2.8%) and geranyl acetat (1.8%) were existed in the essential oil. In the fumigant toxicity set at 27 ± 1 °C and 65 ± 5% R. H., darkness condition and 24 h exposure time, considerable differences in mortality of insect to essential oil vapor were observed. C. maculatus  (LC50 = 10.2 µl/l air) was significantly more susceptible than T. confusum  (LC50 = 497.8 µl/l air). These results suggested that essential oil  of L. citriodora could be used as a potential control agent against stored-product insects.

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The essential oils of aerial parts of three medicinal plants Artemisia khorassanica Podl., Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Mentha longifolia L. were isolated by hydrodistillation and investigated for their toxicity and repellency against Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val. at 27 ± 1 ºC and 60 ± 5% RH in darkness. The mortality of the adults increased with concentration from 185 to 1111 μl/l air and with exposure time from 9 to 24 h. A concentration of 185 μl/l air and exposure time of 24 h was sufficient to obtain nearly 100% kill of the adults in all of the three essential oils tested. At the highest concentration (1111 μl/l air) R. officinalis oil caused 15% mortality for an exposure time of 6-h. whilst, the oil of A. khorassanica resulted in 1% mortality at the same exposure time. The oil of A. khorassanica at 1111 μl/l air caused 81% mortality for 12-h exposure time. No significant differences were observed between the lethal time (LT₅₀) values at essential oil concentrations of 741 and 1111 μl/l air. For 24-h exposure time, the LC₅₀ values of A. khorassanica, R. officinalis and M. longifolia essential oils were estimated to be 22.45, 22.14 and 39.96 μl/l air respectively. Based on LC₅₀ values, adults of T. confusum showed similar susceptibility to the A. khorassanica and R. officinalis oils, but M. longifolia oil proved to be less toxic. In contrast to their low fumigant properties, the essential oil of M. longifolia had significantly higher repellency to T. confusum adults than did the other two.  

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Microcerotermes diversus Silvestri (Isoptera: Termitidae) is the most economically destructive wood pest in structures in Khuzestan province (Iran). Chemicals such as essential oils and plant extracts that are compatible with the environment and have high potential to be used in integrated pest management programs are extremely important resources. This study evaluated contact and digestive toxicity of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehneh. (Myrtaceae)essential oil in no-choice and choice bioassays and feeding inhibition trials on M. diversus. Concentrations of the essential oil ranged from 0.3 to 1.6%. The results of the choice tests and feeding inhibition trial showed that the essential oil could act as a repellent at 0.7% concentration. Concentrations used in these tests resulted in mortality of termites, and a direct relationship between concentration and mortality was observed. The essential oil also increased the mortality of termites at concentrations higher than 0.7%. Termite feeding decreased with increase in concentration. Due to the ability of termites to choose the untreated filter-paper in the choice trial, values of LT and LC, were higher than in no-choice trials. The highest effects of Eucalyptus essential oil (≈100% mortality) was obtained by the concentration 1.6%. Overall, this study reveals that Eucalyptus essential oil may be suggested as an effective toxicant with suitable contact and digestive toxicity on M. diversus.  

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Essential oils are volatile mixtures of hydrocarbons with diverse functional groups. In the current study the effect of essential oils from five medicinal plants including Zataria multiflora and Nepeta cataria (Lamiaceae), Tagetes minuta and Artemisia sieberi (Asteraceae), and Trachyspermum ammi (Apiaceae) were analyzed using GC-mass spectrometry. The toxicity of these plant essential oils against the adult stage of the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae L. (Hemiptera: Aphididae) was studied using a fumigant assay.GC/Mass analysis revealed that the main essential oils varied between species. The most abundant components in N. cataria, Z. multiflora, T. ammi, T. minuta and A. sieberi were 4a-α, 7-β, 7a-α-nepetalactone (76.8%), carvacrol (62.1%), γ-terpinene (27.1%), limonene (13.0%) and artemisia ketone (48.0%) respectively. The fumigant assays showed that all of these essential oils were toxic to B.brassicae in a dose-dependent manner. The essential oils of N. cataria at 126, 63, 31, 16, 8, and 3 μl L^-1 air caused 94, 76, 52, 46, 36, and 24% mortality within 24 hours, respectively. The same trend was seen when essential oils of the other plants were tested against B. brassicae. These plant essential oils have great potential to be used in integrated pest management especially in greenhouses or other closed systems.

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Bioassays were conducted to assess the contact toxicity of two plant essential oils against adults of Sitophilus granarius (L.) and Tribolium confusum Jacquelin du Val. Essential oils were extracted from seeds of Carum copticum L. and Cuminum cyminum L. Contact toxicity was assessed by topical application and adult mortality was counted 1, 2, 6 and 24 h after exposure. Bioassays were carried out at 27 ± 1 °Cand 65 ± 5% RH in continuous darkness. Results indicated the two essential oils tested were topically toxic to both species. The mortality increased with increase in the oils dose and time exposed to each dose. Adults of S. granarius were more sensitive to C. copticum oil (LD₅₀ = 0.009 µg/mg body wt) than C. cyminum essential oil (LD₅₀ = 0.016 µg/mg body wt). In general, T. confusum showed similar sensitivity to both essential oils. However, adults of T. confusum were more resistant than S. granarius. C. copticum and C. cyminum oils have potential for use in stored-product pest management.  

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Although Lamiaceae family have been used for centuries as flavouring agent or spice in different foods and also in traditional medicine for treatment of digestive and viral diseases, for example utilization of Ziziphora clinopodioides in yoghurt for above mentioned objectives but a few studies have been performed on the interaction between these compounds and yoghurt starter culture activity. This study was designed to evaluate the effect of Ziziphora clinopodioides on growth of yoghurt starter culture. Trials of set yoghurt were prepared according to standard method with different cocentrations of the essential oil (0,125,250,500 μg/L) and extract (0,1000,2000,4000 μg/L) of Ziziphora clinopodioides. Viability of starter culture was investigated during the storage of yoghurt at 4 ° C at different time intervals. The results showed that the number of starter culture in all samples decreased during storage. There was no significant difference of Ziziphora clinopodioides essential oil between samples and control (P <0.01). The extract of Ziziphora clinopodioides at high concentration (4000 μg/L) significantly (P <0.01) decreased the viability of starter culture after 19 th day of yoghurt production.

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The antimicrobial effects of essential oil isolated from Myrtus communis L. against Es-cherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniaee, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus licheniformis, Candida albicans and Sac-charomyces cerevisiae were studied. The disc diffusion method was used to evaluate the zone of microbial growth inhibition at various concentrations of the oil. The minimal In-hibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimal Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) of the oil were determined. The oil was found to have an antimicrobial effect. Kinetics of microbial destruction exhibited that the oil could kill microorganisms within 45 minutes of expo-sure. GC and GC/MS analysis of the oil revealed 32 components. The major components were α-Pinene (29.4%), Limonene (21.2%), 1,8-Cineole (18%), Linalool (10.6%), Linalyl acetate (4.6%) and α-Terpineole (3.1%). The high monoterpenes hydrocarbons such as α-Pinene and Limonene seem to contribute to the strong antimicrobial activity of Myrtus communis L. Further research on antimicrobial effects of essential oils with a view to sub-stituting the common chemical compounds is promising.

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Tetranychus turkestani is one of the most important pests of greenhouse plants in the southern provinces of Iran. Several benefits of using essential oils over chemical pesticides make them appropriate for IPM programs. Contact and fumigant toxicity of the essential oils of Foeniculum vulgare and Citrus limon against the spider mite and its predator, Orius albidipennis were investigated under laboratory conditions. Contact toxicity experiments were conducted at six concentrations, (0, 50, 100, 300, 800 and 2000 ppm) of each essential oil on the mature and immature life stages of the pest, and mortalities were recorded 72 h after exposure. In fumigant toxicity trials, LC₅₀ values of the essential oils were determined on different developmental stages of T. turkestani and O. albidipennis. At 800 and 2000 ppm, both essential oils had high contact toxicity on the eggs, 2^nd instar nymphs and adults of T. turkestani, while the same concentrations caused less mortality on O. albidipennis. No significant phytotoxicity of the essential oils was observed. The mortality rates of T. turkestani and O. albidipennis increased as concentration was increased. Also, the 2^nd instar nymph of T. turkestani was more sensitive to contact application of the essential oils than other developmental stages. In the fumigant toxicity bioassay, LC₅₀ values of the essential oil derived from F. vulgare on the egg, 2^nd instar nymph and adult of T. turkestani were 16.08, 7.98 and 14.06, and the values for C. limon essential oil were 11.6, 9.86 and 11.52 µl × l^-1air, respectively. The highest fumigant toxicity was observed against the 2^nd instar nymphs of the mite. Fumigant toxicity of the essential oils was lower against O. albidipennis than against T. turkestani. This data suggests that the essential oils of these plants have the potential of being employed in the IPM programs of T. turkestani in greenhouse crops, especially cucumber.

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Plant essential oils and their constituents are recognized as proper alternatives to fumigants. Thymus daenensis Celak is one of these plants that have medicinal properties and is endemic to Iran. The essential oil was isolated by hydrodistillation from dry leaves using a modified clevenger-type apparatus and the chemical composition of the oil was assessed via GC and GC-MS. Fourteen compounds (100% of the total composition) were identified. Thymol (57.4%), carvacrol (9.8%), β-caryophyllene (6.9%), γ-terpinene (6.7%) and p-cymene (6.3%) were found to be the major compounds of the essential oil. The fumigant toxicity of the essential oil was tested against 1-3 days old adults of Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) and Sitophilus granarius (L.) at 27 ± 1 °C and 65 ± 5% R. H. in darkness. The mortality of adults was tested at different concentrations (28.12, 40.62, 53.12 and 65.62 µl/l air) and different exposure times. At the highest concentration (65.62 µl/l air), T. daenensis oil caused 90 and 60% mortality with a 3 h exposure on C. maculatus and S. granarius, respectively. Based on LC₅₀ values, C. maculatus (4.22 µl/l air) was significantly more susceptible than S. granarius (6.55 µl/l air). These results show the efficacy of T. daenensis oil for stored-products protection.

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The effect of edible whey protein coating and dill (Anethum graveolens) essential oil on the quality and shelf-life of silver carp’s fillets, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix,during refrigeration storage was evaluated. Fillets were immersed in whey protein solution (10%), dill essential oil (5%) and a mixture of whey protein (10%) and dill essential oil (5%), then packed and stored in refrigerator (4˚C). Chemical (PV, TBA and TVB-N) and microbial (TVC and PTC) parameters were measured at 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 days. The amount of peroxide value and thiobarbitoric acid significantly increased (P < 0.05) in all treatments, but this increace was lower in whey protein coating with dill essential oil fillets. Total volatile basic nitrogen of dill essential oil, whey protein and whey protein with dill essential oil treatments in the first and last phase of storage were 7.55, 7.60, and 7.51- 24.11, 25.84 and 15.55 mgN₂/100 g fillet, respectively. The TVC and PTC amount for whey protein with dill essential oil was lower in comparsion with other treatments. Thus, whey protein coating with dill essential oil increased the shelf-life ofsilver carp’s fillets during refrigerated storage. 

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The antimicrobial and physico-mechanical properties of fish gelatin-alginate film incorporated with oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) essential oil (OEO) were assessed. The blended films were prepared with 75% fish gelatin and 25% sodium alginate and OEO (0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5%) was added to the film solutions. Results showed that adding 0.5% OEO into films improved tensile strength about 2.54 MPa compared to the control films. The incorporation of 1.5% essential oil decreased tensile strength and the elongation percentage by 3.16 MPa and 15.59%, respectively; water vapor permeability, viscosity and opacity also significantly declined (P < 0.05). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of the surface of the film confirmed these results. Although 1.5% OEO-films showed higher antimicrobial activity, fish gelatin-alginate films incorporated with lower level of OEO can be can be more appropriate for food preservationl.

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In this study, the efficiency of essential oils from asafoetida, Ferula assa foetida L.,geranium, Pelargonium hortorum L.H. Bailey and walnut leaves, Juglans regia F. was investigated on nutritional indices of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) adults. Wheat grains were treated with different concentrations of the oils. The nutritional indices: relative growth rate (RGR), relative consumption rate (RCR), efficiency of conversion of ingested food (ECI) and feeding deterrence index (FDI) were measured at 28 ± 2 °C, 65 ± 5% R. H. in continuous darkness. RGR, RCR and ECI deceased as the concentration level was increased. While, FDI percent increased significantly as the concentration level increased. Asafoetida oil had the most efficiency on nutritional indices and 28.61 ppm of the oil was enough to decrease RGR, RCR and ECI% to 0.032 mg/mg/day, 0.444 mg/mg/day and 6.994%, respectively. FDI percent of adults exposed to 6.5 ppm of asafoetida oil was 13.31% which increased upto 64.62% at the concentration of 28.61 ppm. In the second experiment, the effect of tested essential oils was evaluated on F1 progeny reduction of R. dominica. Walnut and asafoetida leaves essential oils significantly suppressed progeny production by (59.92%) and (53.2%) respectively.
 

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In this study, anti Alternaria solani effects of essential oils of 11 medicinal and aromatic plant species belonging to four families collected from the west of Iran were investigated based on agar dilution method with five replications at concentration of 1.0 µl/ml. The results showed that the highest inhibitory effect belonged to Oliveria decumbens, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Carum copticum and Thymus kotschyanus which completely inhibited the mycelial growth of the fungus. Therefore, their activity was examined in lower concentrations, too. The essential oil of O. decumbens at concentration of 0.50 and 0.25 µl/ml completely suppressed the mycelial growth of the fungus. The major constituents of its essential oil were carvacrol (46.53%), thymol (23.75%), p-Cymene (13.70%), γ-terpinene (7.66%) and myristicin (3.65%), respectively. Thus, the essential oil of this species with the highest anti-Alternaria activity could be selected for further studies on in vivo application as natural fungicide.

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Essential oils (EOs) extracted from aerial parts of Aster indamellus Grierson, Calamintha umbrosa Benth. and Erigeron annuus (L.) Pres.were analyzed by GC, GC/MS. The major acetylenic constituent (cis-lachnophyllum ester) of E. annuus was isolated and characterized by ¹H and ¹³C-NMR spectra. Their toxicity and repellent effect against Lipaphiserysimi was tested. Oils of E. annuus and C. umbrosa exhibited higher toxicity on direct spray and by fumigation. LC₅₀ value of E. annuus oil was 0.43 mg/ml as direct spray. By fumigation, LC₅₀ value for E. annuus was 1.29 ml/l air, while for C. umbrosa;it was 1.00 ml/l air. With acetylenic ester, about half of L. erysimi were killed at 10 mg/ml approximately within 13.25 h, while with E. annuus oil the LT₅₀ value was approximately 8.89 h. In conclusion, the EO of E. annuus and its acetylenic constituent have potential as biopesticide for economically important crop pests.

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Aims: The aim of this study was to investigate chemical composition, antioxidant potential, and antimicrobial activity of cardamom essential oil against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae species.
Materials & Methods: The chemical compositions of cardamom essential oil were identified by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) device. Cardamom essential oil antioxidant activity was measured by 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay, and its total phenolic compounds (TPC) were measured by Folin–Ciocalteu reagent. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of cardamom essential oil were determined using the serial-dilution method.
Findings: According to the GC-MS analysis results, 17 compounds were totally identified in cardamom essential oil, among which the most important compounds were 1, 8-cineole (36.74%) and α-terpinyl acetate (33.07%). MICs obtained for S. aureus, E. coli, and S. cerevisiae were 12.50, 25.00, and 1.56 mg/mL, respectively. Also, MBC obtained for both S. aureus and E. coli was 25 mg/mL, while MBC for S. cerevisiae was 3.36 mg/mL. Antioxidant activity measurement results showed that increasing the amount of cardamom essential oil reduced the amount of color and absorbance of DPPH solution to 517 nm. The results also showed that the amount of TPC in cardamom essential oil was 214.35 mg gallic acid per 100 g of dry material.
Conclusion: Cardamom essential oil used in this study showed antibacterial and anti-yeast activities against S. aureus, E. coli, and S. cerevisiae species. Antimicrobial effects of cardamom essential oil were predictable due to the presence of antimicrobial components in this oil.

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The present study was to evaluate the effect of dietary yeast cell wall (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and cinnamon essential oil (Cinnamomum verum) supplementation on growth indices, serum biochemical parameters and immunity of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fingerlings. Using a 2×2 factorial experiment, 276 fingerlings (9.67 ± 1.20 g) were fed four different experimental diets (including control diet, diet supplemented with 1.5 % yeast cell wall or 1 % cinnamon essential oil and a diet containing 1.5 % yeast cell wall and 1 % cinnamon essential oil) for a 60-day period. At the end of the trial, specific growth rate and weight gain significantly decreased in fish fed diet supplemented with 1% cinnamon essential oil (P≤0.05), however, feed conversion ratio was not statistically differed amongst treatments (P>0.05). Fish fed diets containing 1% cinnamon essential oil had the highest hepatosomatic index (P≤0.05). The highest red blood cell count and blood hemoglobin content belonged to group fed diet containing 1% cinnamon essential oil (P≤0.05). Simultaneous feeding with yeast cell wall and cinnamon essential oil significantly resulted in higher hematocrit value. Serum alkaline phosphatase activity was significantly increased in group fed diet containing 1.5% yeast cell wall. Dietary cinnamon essential oil supplementation also resulted in lower alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase and gamma glutamyltransferase activity of serum (P≤0.05). The highest serum total protein and globulin content and lysozyme activity were observed in fish fed diet only supplemented with yeast cell wall (P≤0.05). In conclusion, dietary cinnamon essential oil and yeast cell wall inclusion resulted in improved immunity of rainbow trout fingerlings.